Juvenile delinquency refers to juvenile behavior characterized by antisocial conduct that is beyond parental control and is therefore subject to legal action. However, such behavior or violation of the law is not punishable by death or life imprisonment.

Extensive research and study have been conducted to determine the possible causes as well as risk factors that eventually lead to cases of juvenile delinquency. A risk factor can be defined as scientifically proven reasons that have a strong causal relationship to a certain problem. An in-depth understanding of various factors that result in juvenile delinquency can help parents and society as a whole to come up with solutions to deal with the problem. Some risk factors have been categorized and are listed below:

Individual/Personal Factors — Individual psychological or behavioral risk factors that may increase the likelihood of committing criminal offenses include intelligence, aggression, impulsiveness, anxiety and empathy. Aggressive behavior has also been noted among children with certain neurological and cognitive abnormalities. These may manifest as restlessness, low IQ and verbal ability, poor scholastic performance, constricted problem-solving skills and reasoning abilities, neurophysiological disorders and aberrant functioning of neurotransmitter systems and steroid hormones.

Children with low intelligence are likely to have poor performance in school. This situation may further increase the chances of offending since low educational aspirations and low educational attainment are all risk factors for juvenile delinquency. Moreover, children who perform poorly in school are the ones who are more likely to truant, which is likewise related to offending.

Environmental Factors – The immediate environment where a child grows has a significant role in influencing the child’s behavior patterns. Some environmental factors that have been generally associated with delinquent behavior include poverty or limited economic opportunities, excessive exposure to violence and criminal acts, and high unemployment rate.

Community/Social Factors – Researchers claim that the community has a substantial role to play in child development, including a smooth transition from adolescence to adulthood. A strong social infrastructure help children and teenagers to develop the essential social skills, boost self-confidence and enhance decision-making capabilities. In contrast, a disorganized society is a potential risk factor for juvenile delinquency. Some community level risk factors include lack of quality educational and recreational opportunities, availability and accessibility of illicit drugs and weapons.

Family Factors — It is crucial to establish good communication between parents and children, adequate parental supervision and guidance in order to ensure healthy development of a child. However, there is sufficient evidence which suggests that family environment has direct influence on a child’s state of mind, resulting in juvenile delinquency. These include incidences like domestic violence, child neglect, child abuse, parental conflict or separation, criminal parents or siblings, and ineffective disciplinary practices of parents.

The fear of youth is called ephebiphobia. Initially referred to as the “fear and loathing of teenagers,” today this social condition is regarded as the “inaccurate, overstated and sensational depiction of young people” in various settings across the globe. There are individuals in society who are hesitant and refuse to go near young people, to the point where they veer away, campaign against, and hard sell against anything that would benefit the youth, with the notion that such actions will keep young people away from them.

The term ephebiphobia came from the Greek word éphēbo, meaning youth and phóbos, meaning fear. The origin of this term is ascribed to an article written by Kirk Astroth, which was later published in Phi Delta Kappan. Other accounts said that the term was coined about 10 years ago to capture the social panic that has stricken media, politicians, and even learning institutions. In general, it was based on negative conventions as well as negative childhood experiences, and has been stereotyped and preserved by the way media portrays today’s youth. Ephebiphobia is currently used by sociologists, social psychologists, government agencies and youth advocacy groups that characterize ephebiphobia as an aberrant and irrational fear of youth or adolescence.

Ephebiphobia actually forms part of a series of age-related fears that include:

• Pediaphobia or the fear of infants and/or young children
• Ephebiphobia or the fear of youth
• Gerontophobia or the fear of elders

There are other similar terms that have been used as synonymous to ephebiphobia. For instance, paedophobia has earned popular acceptance across Europe and has been used to describe the foregoing “fear of youth.” Another term that has been proposed is Hebephobia, from the Greek word hḗbē, meaning “youth or puberty.” Other terms include ageism, which denotes social discrimination based on one’s age; and adultism or the inclination towards adults that is biased against children and the youth.

This phenomenon, along with the fear of crime and street culture, is believed to have existed in Western culture for quite some time. Certain events bolster this claim; ancient Greece and Venice are said to have struggled with public policy due to their fear of youth. Niccolo Machiavelli is believed to have envisaged that a fear of youth is what really kept Florence from maintaining a standing army.

The onset of American Puritanism was viewed as dependent on a fear of youth, who were perceived as epitomizing enlightenment and adventure. As such, young people were then seen as vulnerable to decadent morality. The Industrial Revolution also prompted popular media in North America and Western Europe to perpetuate the fear of children and youth in an attempt to advance the industrialization of schooling, and to eliminate the presence of young people from the workplace at a time their labor was deemed unnecessary as a result of mechanization and the advent of new labor.

Concern for mal de jeunesse was claimed to have stricken post-World War II France when they crafted policies that revealed their fear of youth. At that time, youth policies centered on sending French teenagers to either summer camps or in reformatories, while the rest enjoyed total freedom. Likewise, the United States military recognized the surge in number of young people in the Deep South and viewed it as a threat to national security. Analysts later proposed that the upsurge in the popular culture’s fear of youth may be imputed to certain defense policies that have been devised in response to that threat.

The public fear of youth further intensified in the 1990s due to the increased youth access to guns, the emergence of youth gangs and their eventual links to illegal drug cartels, typecasting of urban youth, political and academic pandering, as well as a series of high-profile school shootings that triggered a media frenzy. Moreover, in an issue of Seattle Weekly, fear of youth was particularly cited as the major factor behind Seattle’s Teen Dance Ordinance that eventually went down the drain. Even the administration of British Prime Minister Tony Blair instituted the Anti-Social Behaviour Order in 1998, which has also been directly associated to ephebiphobia.

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories of personality in psychology. Erik Erikson came up with eight stages explaining the process through which individuals should go through from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the individual faces, and hopefully gains mastery over certain skills. Each stage then builds on the successful completion of the previous stages.

Each stage is concerned with becoming competent in a certain area of life. If the stage is managed well, the individual will feel a sense of mastery, which he referred to as ego strength or ego quality. But if the stage is handled poorly, the individual will experience a sense of inadequacy. Erikson believes that the challenges of stages that were not successfully dealt with may reappear later in life in the form of problems.

Enumerated below are the eight stages, with special attention to stages five and six:

Psychosocial Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)

The first stage is the most fundamental stage in life and focuses on the infant’s basic needs. Since an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust depends on the parents or guardians. The child’s understanding of the world is provided by the parents and their interaction with the child. If the child is exposed to an environment of warmth and dependable affection, the child’s perspective of the world will be one of trust. Once the child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. On the Other hand, parents who are emotionally unavailable, inconsistent or rejecting confer the feeling of mistrust.

Psychosocial Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)

This stage is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control as they begin to assert their independence. If children at this stage are supported and encouraged in their increased independence, they tend to become more confident and secure in their ability to survive in the world. The parents’ patience and encouragement helps instil autonomy in the child. But children who are criticized and restricted by their parents tend to develop a sense of shame and doubt in their own abilities.

Psychosocial Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4 to 6 years)

Children start to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other forms of social relation.  Children want to begin and complete their own actions for a purpose. They begin to plan and initiate activities with others. Once given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and prepare for leadership and goal achievement roles. Conversely, if adults discourage the pursuit of independent activities, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt.

Psychosocial Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood, 7 to 12 years)

Children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities through social interactions. They are more focused to bring a productive situation to completion instead of previous whims and wishes of play. They tend to initiate projects, bring them to completion, and feel good about what they’ve achieved. At this stage, teachers play a significant role in the child’s development. In general, children who are encouraged and commended by their teachers and parents develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills and abilities to achieve goals. Those who receive little or no encouragement will feel inferior and start to doubt their ability to be successful.

Psychosocial Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents, 13 to 19 years)

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is of utmost importance. It is the time when children are exploring their independence and developing a sense of self. They explore possibilities and start to establish their own identity based upon the results of their explorations. The adolescent is deeply concerned with how they appear to others. They start to look at the future in terms of relationships, career, families, housing, etc. During the later stages of adolescence, the child develops a sense of sexual identity.

As children make the transition from childhood to adulthood, adolescents evaluate the roles they will play as adults. At first, they are likely to experience some role confusion or mixed ideas and feelings about how they will blend into society. As such, they are apt to experiment with different types of behavior and activities. In the end, Erikson proposed that most adolescents will achieve a sense of identity as to who they are and where their lives are headed.

During the entire process, those who get enough encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration are the ones who will emerge with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control. In contrast, those who remain uncertain and doubtful of their beliefs and desires tend to be confused about themselves and the future.

Psychosocial Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults, 20 to 34 years)

At the beginning of this stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end, and it persists at the foundation of the stage. Young adults still yearn to blend their identities with their peers in their effort to fit in. Erikson believes that people are sometimes isolated due to intimacy. People are discouraged and fearful of rejections because it is painful and the ego cannot bear such pain. Erikson also proposes that intimacy has a counterpart: distantiation or the willingness to isolate and if needed, to eliminate the forces and people whose essence are perceived as threat, and whose domain seems to impinge on the extent of one’s intimate relations.

Erikson posits that the moment people establish their identities, they are ready to engage in long-term commitment. They are able to form intimate relationships and readily make the sacrifices and compromises that such relationships entail. If people fail to form intimate relationships, then a sense of isolation may result. Moreover, those who avoid intimacy can lead to isolation and sometimes depression.

Psychosocial Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 35 to 65 years)

Generativity pertains to the concern of guiding the next generation. People at this stage are focused on giving back to society by being productive at work and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. When a person achieves such objectives, a sense of generativity results. In contrast, those who are unable or unwilling to help society move forward feel unproductive and develops a feeling of stagnation.

Psychosocial Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Seniors, 65 years onwards)

As people grow older and become senior citizens, productivity slows down and the focus shifts on reflecting back on life. It is during this stage that people contemplate about accomplishments and are able to develop ego integrity if there is a perception that they had led a successful life. There is a feeling of contentment and integrity if they believe that they have led a happy and productive life. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience disappointment and regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

Psychosocial Stages Summary Chart

Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development embodies an adaptation of Jean Piaget’s psychological theory. However, Kohlberg realized that Piaget’s stage theory was rather simplistic and found out that individuals combine their way of thinking, specifically in moral development. He developed this theory while he was a psychology postgraduate student at the University of Chicago.

The theory posits that moral reasoning, which forms the basis for ethical behavior, has six distinct developmental stages, with each stage being more capable of addressing moral predicaments than its predecessor. Kohlberg studied the development of moral judgment beyond the ages initially analyzed by Piaget.  Kohlberg expanded Piaget’s findings and figured out that the course of moral development was primarily concerned with the concept of justice, and that it persists throughout the individual’s lifetime.

Kohlberg based his studies on accounts such as the Heinz dilemma, and was deeply engrossed in how individuals would rationalize their actions once placed in comparable moral dilemmas.  He then examined the form of moral reasoning employed, instead of its conclusion, and went on to categorize it as corresponding to one of six separate stages. The result of his work is a six stage model which is further broken down into three levels and with two stages at each level.

Preconventional Level

This level is particularly common in children; the child is responsive to cultural rules and judges the morality of an action by its direct consequences and is solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner.

Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation. Individuals in this stage focus on the direct consequences of their actions on themselves. The physical consequences of an action determine its goodness or badness regardless of the value of such consequences.

Stage 2: The instrumental relativist orientation. This stage is self-interest driven wherein the proper action consists of what satisfies one’s needs and correct behavior is determined by whatever is in the individual’s best interest.

Conventional Level

This level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. The individual values the maintenance of social expectations, regardless of immediate and obvious consequences. Morality is distinguished by an acceptance of society’s precepts regarding what is right or wrong.

Stage 3: The interpersonal concordance or “good boy-nice girl” orientation. This level is driven by interpersonal accord and conformity. At this stage children are usually entering their teens and view morality as more than simple deals. They believe that individuals should live up to the expectations of the family and community and behave in “good” ways. Good behavior is perceived as what pleases or helps others and is approved by them. This means having good motives and interpersonal feelings such as love, trust, empathy, and concern for others. There is much conformity to prosaic images of what is “natural” behavior. Individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as they try to be a “good boy” or “good girl” to meet social expectations. Reasoning at this stage may judge the morality of an action by analyzing its consequences in terms of a person’s relationships, which now starts to incorporate values such as respect and gratitude.

Stage 4: The “law and order” orientation. The individual is oriented toward the obedience of laws, dictums and social conventions. Proper behavior is all about doing one’s duty, showing respect for authority, and preserving social order for its own sake. Moral reasoning in this stage is beyond the need for individual approval manifested in stage three.

Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level

This level presents an increasing realization that individuals are distinct entities from society, and that their own views may take precedence over society’s perspective; they may steer away from social norms once they are inconsistent with their own principles. Individuals live by their own principles about what is right and wrong.

Stage 5: The social-contract legalistic orientation. Right action is defined in terms of individual rights and standards that have been examined and approved by society. Laws are considered as social contracts instead of rigid dictums. Laws that do not promote the common good are subject to change when necessary in order to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Stage 6: The universal ethical-principle orientation. Right is characterized by the decision of conscience consistent with self-chosen ethical principles that adjures to logical extent, consistency and universality. In essence, these are universal principles of justice, of reciprocity and equality, and of respect for the dignity of every human being.

Summary of Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Developmental psychology, also known as human development, is concerned with various components of human psychology and how they change over time. These aspects of development complement several other areas of psychology, including studies of personality, cognition and social abilities.  It is a scientific study of methodical psychological changes that take place over the course of an individual’s life span.

Upon its conception, the primary concern of developmental psychology is the development of infants and children, but the field has expanded to cover the entire life span, including adolescence, adult development and aging.  The field focuses on change across a vast range of topics such as cognitive development; motor skills; language acquisition; personality, emotional and social development; self-concept and identity formation.

Developmental psychology delves on a wide range of issues such as the degree to which development takes place through the gradual acquisition of knowledge or the extent to which children are born with intrinsic mental faculties versus learning through experience. Experts in the field also try to determine the interaction between personal characteristics and environmental factors and their influence on individual development.

A number of theorists tried to explain human development; among the most prominent theoretical perspectives are those from Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory, Lev Vygotsky’s Social Contextualism and its successors, including the Cultural Theory of Development of Michael Cole, and the Ecological Systems Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner. Also worth noting is the information processing framework applied by cognitive psychology.

Other less eminent perspectives that relate to theories of development that continue to provide a basis for further studies include Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development as well B. F. Skinner’s and John B. Watson’s behaviorism.  Several other theories provided salient contributions to specific aspects of development. For instance, the stages of moral development as described by Lawrence Kohlberg, as well as the Attachment Theory which characterizes the types of interpersonal relationships.

Below is a brief outline of the more prominent theories of development:

Jean Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development. Piaget’s stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Piaget believed that early cognitive development involves processes based on actions and later advance into changes in mental operations. Piaget enumerated four periods in the development towards completely reversible thought structures. These periods include the following:  the sensorimotor stage, the preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage and the formal operational stage.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.  This is based on the premise that that people acquire new behavior through reinforcement or punishment, or through observational learning of the social factors in their immediate environment.  This means that if people observe positive outcomes in the observed behavior, then they are more inclined to imitate and adopt the behavior themselves.

Lev Vygotsky’s Cultural Historical Theory. Vygotsky postulated that children learn via hands-on experience. He also posited that timely intervention by parents when a child is on the verge of learning a new concept could help children learn new tasks. Vygotsky specifically focused on the role of culture in establishing the child’s pattern of development which tends to move from the social to the individual level.

Ecological Systems Theory. Also known as Human Ecology or Development in Context Theory, it details four types of environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems. These are Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, and Macrosystem. Each system contains roles and rules with the potential to shape development.

Stages of Psychosocial Development. This was conceptualized by Erik Erikson and is by far one of the most popular theories of personality. Erikson believed that personality develops through a series of stages: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair.

Attachment Theory. This was originally developed by John Bowlby, who focused on intimate and emotionally meaningful relationships.  Bowlby described attachment as a strong survival impulse or biological system that evolved to guarantee the survival of the child. This means that a child who is under threat will likely seek caregivers who can create a sense of physical, emotional and psychological safety.

Nature/Nurture. This is an essential issue in developmental psychology and describes the association between innateness and environmental influence in terms of the different aspect of development. This is frequently termed as “nature versus nurture” or nativism versus empiricism. A nativist’s view of development is one that is innate, meaning it is dictated by a person’s genes. From an empiricist perspective, development is acquired through an interaction with the environment.

Just recently, CNN reported a heart-breaking news about a Berkeley teen who was convicted in the murder of his father. The victim was raising three kids on his own when one of them, for reasons unknown, murdered him with a gunshot to the head.  The judge handling the case found the 16-year-old teen guilty of first-degree murder with an enhancement for using a gun in the death of his 40-year-old father.

When the teen was sentenced, the judge could have him locked up in the California Division of Juvenile Justice until he reaches the age of 25. He could also face a variety of other sentences, including being placed on probation and sent home, being sent to a group home or placed in minimum security reform centers. Regardless of what happens, a life was lost and the life of the teenager and those of his siblings are put in jeopardy with the uneventful passing of their father who is supposed to guide them in today’s chaotic environment.

Teen violence is increasingly becoming one of the most serious problems of modern society. It is a curse not only for the victim but for his/her family and the entire society as well. It is also responsible for thousands of deaths every year around the world.  This kind of violence alienates the victim from his/her family, friends and loved ones. Teenagers who engage in violence, generally try to keep themselves away from everyone. Psychologists explain that they do so for the sake of getting away from social embarrassment. Teen abuse lawyers advocate that the victim must get proper legal support at such delicate phase of her/his life.

Young adults are complicated, inquisitive, and filled with potential. Once left unchecked, they can blow up in a million pieces, causing problems resulting to irreparable damage or even death. This is precisely the reason why parents are endowed with the moral obligation to guide their teens during this crucial stage in their lives.

Oftentimes teenagers find their peer groups to be more significant to them than their parents. This being the case, it is as if parents are handling over the life of their teen to the type of group he/she may belong to. With this change come different expectations. This is why friends are such a key developmental and influential factor in the teenage years. Many teens who get involved in gangs are simply trying to live out their new group’s expectations rather than their parents’. Adolescents are all on an equal plane when it comes to violent behavior. Regardless of background, almost all adolescents become significantly more violent after puberty and it drops off again somewhere in their mid-20s.